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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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Teachers' .Manual 



FOR 



li\STRLCTlU.\ L\ DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 



Industrial Education Association, 

9 Uniatersity Place, New York City. 



1888. 



Teachers' Manual 



FOR 



INSTRUCTION IN DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 



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(^MA,T g 1888 %)f 

Industrial Education Association, 

9 Univebsitt Place, New Yokk City. 



1888. 






PREFATORY NOTE. 

This manual has been drawn up for the use of the students of the College for the 
Training of Teachers founded by the Industrial Education Association, and for such 
teachers as adopt the method of instruction followed at the College by Miss Julia H. 
Oakley, Professor of Domestic Economy in this institution. It is not intended to be. 
comiDlete or exhaustive. Its aim is to give the outline of a carefully developed course 
of instruction in cooking which shall have an educational rather than a technical value, 
and to furnish notes for the conduct of the same. In the preparation of the manual 
substantial assistance has been derived from Mrs. Ellen H. Richards and Mrs. D. A. 
Lincoln of Boston, and from their writings, from Prof. W. O. Atwater of Wesleyan Uni- 
versity and from the following books : Chemistry of Cooking, by W. Matthieu Wilhams, 
Handbook of Household Science by Prof. E. L. Youmans, Manual of Object Teaching, by 
Assistant Superintendent N. A. Calkins, and Manual of Chemistry, by Messrs. Eliot 
and Storer. 



Copyright, 1888 
BY THE 

Industrial Education Association. 



Industrial EdiicationAssociation 

No. 9 University Place, N. Y. 



FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 



Lesson First. 

SUBJECT— FIRE. 

Take a candle and tell the class tliat the substances of which 
it is composed and the gas of the outer air have such an at- 
traction for one another that they always combine when they 
meet at a certain temperatui^e, and this is what we call bui^n- 
ing. Now light the candle and show how freely it burns when 
it has unlimited oxygen. This is the way a fire burns when we 
give it plenty of air\ Now place a lamp chimney over the candle 
and watch the flame grow long and thin ; this illustrates partly 
closed di'aughts. Finally, put a piece of metal on top of the 
chimney, and as soon as the oxygen is exhausted in the chim- 
ney, the candle goes out. Just so with a fire that is given no 
oxygen. 

Heat, for household purposes, is obtained by rapid combus- 
tion, or the chemical union of the air, or oxygen in the air, 
with the carbon or hydrogen of the fuel. All varieties of fuel 
were originally vegetable matter, which has gone through a 
process of decomposition and chemical change. As the trees 
from which we derive our coal and wood grew, they absorbed 
the sun-light and therefore when we burn these articles, or 
cause the oxygen of the air to come in direct contact with 
the carbon or hydi'ogen of the fuel, we liberate the sun-light 
and heat which has been imprisoned in these substances for 
thousands of years. The gases which our fuel yields, consist- 
ing of carbon and hydrogen, do not unite with the oxygen 
except at a very high temperature, and especial means must 
be employed to produce this heat. Some substances like 



4 FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 

phosphorus will burn easily when heated by friction. When 
we strike matches, the phosphorus becomes heated and ignites 
the sulphur, the sulphur sets fire to the paper, paper to the 
wood, wood to the coal, and we have started our fire. 

We use newspaper for kindling fires because it is made of 
straw and wood pulp, and therefore burns readily, and also 
because the printer's ink contains turpentine and is therefore 
inflammable. Pine is considered the best wood for kindling 
because the sap of this tree is the substance known as resin, 
which ignites at a comparatively low temperature. 

Coal was originally trees, but of a different growth from the 
trees of the present day. They resembled those which we now 
see growing in the tropics. By some unknown means these 
trees became buiied in the earth and were there slowly charred. 
Indeed, the properties of the different varieties of coal depend 
upon the degree to which this charring operation has been 
carried. In anthracite it has reached the last stage ; the 
volatile substances are nearly all expelled, so that nothing re- 
mains but pure carbon with a trace of sulphur and the incom- 
bustible ash. 

Making a Fire. 

After removing and sifting ashes, open the dampers, take off the 
covers and put into tbe fire-box loose rolls of newspaper or shavings 
letting them come close to the front of the grate ; then add fine 
kindlings arranged crosswise, then large kindlings or hard wood. 

When the wood is well kindled, press the coals down and put on 
coal enough to cover the wood and as that ignites, gradually add more 
coal until the fire reaches the top of the fire-box. Use the cinders 
when the fire is burning freely. 



Lesson Second. 

S UBJECT— BOILING. 

Boiling is the changing of liquids into gases or steam, by 
the action of heat sufficient to cause commotion or bubbling 
on the surface. This is the steam escaping. 

Water boils at the earth's surface at 212° F. When this 
boiling point is reached the heat escapes with the steam, 
and so long as the steam cannot be confined all the fire in the 
world will not make the water hotter ; it only evaporates or 
boils away faster. Water boils at a lower temperature when 



FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 5 

the pressure of the air on the water is diminished. If there 
be any gaseous impurities in water, boihng will destroy them. 
But mineral or organic impurities cannot be destroyed in this 
way. 

The white of Qgg is called albumen. This, and other sub- 
stances like it, such as casein (curd) of milk and the albumen 
and myosin of muscle (lean meat) are called albuminoids (albu- 
men-like substances). They are the most important of the 
nutritive ingredients of our food because they make muscle, 
blood, etc. 

One of the properties of albumen is coagulation. This can 
be produced in the white of an egg by the application of heat. 
We all know that when an egg has been immersed during a 
few minutes in boiling water, the colorless S'hiny liquid is 
converted into the solid white to which it owes its name. 
This coagulation of albumen is one of the most decided and 
best understood changes effected by cooking. 

Place some fresh, raw white of egg in a test-tube or other 
suitable glass vessel, and , in the midst of it immerse the bulb 
of a thermometer. Place the tube containing the albumen in 
a vessel of water, and gradually heat this. When the albu- 
men attains a temperature of about 134° F. white fibres will 
begin to appear within it : these will increase until about 160° 
is attained, when the whole mass will become white and 
nearly opaque. Now examine some of the result, and you will 
find that the albumen, thus only just coagulated, is a tender, 
delicate, jelly-like substance, having every appearance to sight, 
touch and taste of being easily digestible. This is the case. 

Having settled these points proceed with the experiment by 
heating the remainder of the albumen to 212° and keeping 
it for a while at this temperature. It will dry, shrink and 
become horny. If the heat is carried a little further it becomes 
converted into a substance which is so hard and tough that a 
valuable cement is obtained by smearing the edges of the arti- 
cle with white of egg and then heating it a little above 212°. 
This experiment teaches a great deal concerning the philoso- 
phy of cooking which is but little known. It shows in the 
first place that so far as the coagulation of albumen is con- 



6 FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 

cerned, the cooking temperature is not that of boiling water, 
but 160°, or 52° below boiling point. 

Soft Boiled Eggs. 

Put the eggs in a saucepan, cover with boiling water, and let them 
stand about five minutes where the water will keep hot but not boil. 
The white should be of a soft, jelly-like consistency, and the yolk 
soft but not liquid. An egg to be cooked soft should never be boiled, 
as the white hardens unevenly before the heat reaches the yolk. 

Poached Eggs. 

Have a shallow pan half full of salted simmering water. Break 
each egg carefully in a saucer and slip it into the water. Baste with 
the hot water and when a white film has formed over the yolk and 
the white is set, take the egg out and serve immediately. 



Lesson Third. 

SUBJECT— BOILINO {continued). 

Like the albumen of eggs, the albuminoids of meat also 
coagulate by the application of heat. These are found in the 
juices and fibres of lean meat. Meat may be cooked in water 
with three different purposes : first, to keep the nutriment 
within the meat, as in what is called boiled meat. To do this 
we leave the meat whole, that only a small surface may be ex- 
posed. Plunge it into boiling water and keep it there for a 
few minutes, or until the outer surface is seared. This hard- 
ens the albuminoids and makes a coating through which the 
juices cannot escape. Now, move the kettle to a part of the 
fire where the water will only simmer, for if left to boil the 
meat will be cooked sooner, but when cooked found to be 
tough and hard. The exposure to long slow heat softens the 
fibres. 

Second, if the maximum of extracted material is wanted in 
the soup the proper way is to cut the meat up fine, extract 
with cold water in order to soak out the extractives and then 
heat to boiling to get out the gelatine and fat. But only a 
small fraction of the total nutritive material of the meat can 
be thus got out of it, at best, and this contains no considerable 
amount of true flesh- forming substances (no albuminoids), but 
only extractives, gelatinoids and fats. The extractives are 



FIRST COURSE IN COOKERT. 7 

not nutrients, they neither form tissue nor yield energy, but do 
have a decided stimulating action and help the body to make 
good use of other nutritious materials. 

Third, meats are cooked in water to have the nutriment 
partly in the liquid and partly in the meat as in stews. Cut 
the meat in small pieces and put into cold water and let it come 
quickly to the boil, then keep at the simmering point until the 
meat is tender. 

Cold water draws out the albuminoids, extractives and min- 
eral salts. 

Boiling water hardens and toughens the albumin and myosin. 

Beef Tea. 

-}4 lb. of lean beef from the roxind. 1 pt. of cold water. 

Cut the beef in small pieces, soak in cold salted water as long as 
possible, squeezing the beef occasionally with the hand ; then place 
the beef and water in a bowl in the top of the double boiler, and steam 
until the meat is hard and the liquid brown. Season with salt and 
pepper. 

Boiled Beef. 

Wipe, trim, and tie the beef into shape. Plunge into boiling 
water and keep there for ten minutes, then move the kettle to a part 
of the fire where the water will only simmer and keep it there from 
two to three hours, or until the meat is tender. 



Lesson Fourth. 

SUBJECT— BOILING {continued). 

Nearly all vegetables contain both starch and albuminoids. 
The effect of cooking vegetables in boiling water is to burst 
the cellulose envelopes which hold the starch grains, and which 
contain albuminoids in the starch. The starch is thus exposed 
to the action of the digestive juices and more easily altered by 
them, which makes the vegetables more digestible and palata- 
ble. 

Vegetables containing much albumen, such as peas and beans, 
should be cooked in soft or salted watei", as the lime in hard 
water hardens the casein and prevents the vegetables from be- 
coming soft. Vegetables are more than half made up of cellu- 
lar tissue, and therefore it demands prominent consideration as 



8 FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 

to the best means of cooking. One authority says : " Cellu- 
lar tissue forms the ground work of every plant, and when 
obtained in a pure state, its composition is the same, what- 
ever may have been the nature of the plants which furnished 
it. Its composition in most cases is that of a carbo-hydrate, 
i. e. carbon united with the elements of water. 

The precautions against coagulating albumen which we use 
in regard to cooking meat need not be taken when vegetables 
are cooked. The work to be done in cooking vegetables is to 
soften the cellular tissue by the action of hot water. There 
is nothing to avoid in the direction of over heating. Even 
if the water could be raised to above 212°, the vegetables 
would be rather improved than injured thereby. 

Next to the enveloping tissue, the most abundant constituent 
of the vegetables we use as food is starch. The ultimate chemi- 
cal composition of starch is the same as that of cellulose, car- 
bon and the elements of water, and in the same proportions, 
but the difference of chemical and physical properties indicates 
some difference in the arrangement of the elements. The dif- 
ference between starch and cellulose that most closely affects 
us is digestibility. The ordinary food-forms of starch are 
among the most easily digested kinds of food, while cellulose 
is peculiarly difficult of digestion. Neither of them are capa- 
ble of sustaining life alone. They contain none of the nitroge- 
nous material required for building up muscle, nerve and 
other animal tissue. They may be converted into fat, and 
may also supply food for manufacturing animal heat and may 
possibly supply some of the energies demanded for organic 
work." 

Potatoes are three-fourths water. The solid matter consists 
largely of starch, with a small quantity of albumen and miner- 
al matter, chiefly potash salts, held in solution in the juices. 
As they contain starch, they must be cooked to be digestible, 
and it is important not to lose any of the nutriment in the pro- 
cess of cooking. The most economical methods are baking, 
steaming and boiling. Potatoes being hydrated, it makes little 
difference whether they be cooked in hot or cold water, as they 
cannot absorb any more water than they already contain. 



PiRSf COURSE IN OOOKEBT. 9 

Using cold water only lengthens the time of cooking a little. 
Eice is remarkable for beino richest in starch and most defi- 
cient in oil of all the cultivated grains. It contains very little 
of the flesh forming element. It should always be used with 
milk, eggs or some fatty substance. Like the potato it should 
be cooked in boiling water in order that the starch grains may 
be ruptured. 

Boiled Potatoes. 

Select potatoes of uniform size. Wash and scrub with a brush. 
Pare, and soak in cold water a few seconds. Put them in boiling 
water, one quart of water and one tablespoonful of salt for six large 
potatoes. Cook half an hour, or until soft but not until broken. 
Drain off every drop of the water. Place the kettle uncovered on 
the back of the stove to let the steam escape. Keep hot until ready 
to serve. Cooking potatoes in their skins helps to keep in the 
valuable potash salts. 

Boiled Rice. 

Have two quarts of water with one tablespoonful of salt boiling 
rapidly in an uncovered kettle. Throw in one cup of well washed 
rice, and let it boil so fast that the kernels fairly dance in the water. 
Skim carefully and stir only with a fork, never with a spoon, as that 
breaks the kernels. Cook from 12 to 20 minutes and add more 
boiling water if needed. Test the grains often and the moment they 
are soft and before the starch begins to cloud the water, pour into a 
strainer and drain. 



Lesson Fifth. 

SUBJECT— so UP-STOCK. 

Soups are classified and named in various ways, according 
to material, color, quality, etc. Soups with stock have meat 
for a basis. Soups without stock are made of vegetables and 
milk. Soups made with stock include all the varieties made 
from beef, veal, mutton, poultry and fish. Fish has usually 
less fat than meat, and more water, but otherwise the com- 
position is nearly the same. It has about the same propor- 
tions of the extractives and gelatinoids which are the prin- 
cipal ingredients (except fat) obtained from the stock. 

The word stock is from the Anglo-Saxon, stician, to stick, 
and the idea of fixedness is expressed in all its forms. Stock 



10 FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 

in trade or business means the money or material laid by. 
Stock in soup means the material stored or prepared in such a 
way that it may be kept or fixed for use in making different 
kinds of soups. The chief object in making stock is to obtain 
in the quickest manner the largest possible amount of nutri- 
ment from the cheapest parts of meat and portions of meat 
and bone which have been left over. Meats used in making 
soup stock should contain fat, extractives and a small amount 
of gelatine. Fat is necessary as an element of perfect food 
and should always be used in making soups. It adds to the 
flavor and all that is not absorbed in the stock may be re- 
moved when cold. Marrow is the best form of fat for soups. 
Extractives are the parts of meat which gives to each of the 
various kinds its distinctive flavor. Gelatine is an exclusive 
animal product, never found in vegetables ; it is a nitrogenous 
compound. The function of the gelatinoids in nutrition is not 
completely understood. But although they do not, in the 
light of the present evidence appear to be transformed into 
albuminoids in the body, i.e. do not make muscle, etc., they 
are nutritive, and in a high degree, some if taken alone. 
They appear to protect the proteins from being consumed, 
which is the next thing to making them, just as saving money 
is the next thing to earning it, and they also yield energy in 
the form of heat and muscular power. 

In soups gelatine causes the fluid to " jelly " and thus we 
are enabled to keep it for a longer time than we could in a 
liquid state. 

To Make Soup Stock. 

Examine all the odds and ends of cooked meat, and remove any 
smoked or burned parts that the stock may be clear. Scrape the 
meat clean from the bones and cut into inch pieces. Eemove the 
marrow from the bones and put it in the soup kettle to keep the 
bones from sticking. Wipe the fresh meat with a towel wet in cold 
water. Never soak the meat ; it takes out the juices. Put bones 
and meat in the kettle ; there should be equal quantities of bone and 
meat, and to every pound of meat allow one qt. of cold water. 
Cover the kettle and after the water is quite red, let it heat slowly 
on the fire and simmer but never boil hard. When the stock has 
simmered until the meat is in rags, and the bones are clean, strain 
into a stone iar and leave to cool. 



FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 11 

Lesson Sixth. 

6" UBJECT—STE WING. 

This is the third and last way of cooking meat in water, 
and the object is to have the nutriment partly in the water 
and partly in the meat. We use a small quantity of water, 
less than for soups, and cook at a moderate heat for a long 
time. The gelatinoid compounds are changed by hot water to 
gelatine, and, at the same time, the connective tissues are 
softened and weakened. In this way tough meat is made ten- 
der by boiling or stewing 

The albumen is coagulated and the myosin hardened by 
heating meat to the boiling point. Boiling or stewing, while 
it hardens the albumen and myosin which are the chief nutri- 
ents of lean meat and fish, at the same time softens and 
weakens the connective tissues which bind them together, and 
thus makes tough meat easy to masticate. Myosin and albu- 
men are but little less easily and completely digested by healthy 
persons after heating than before. Hence, heating tough 
meat with water helps one to chew it finely, and thus makes it 
more easily digestible, because, the finer particles are more 
quickly acted upon by the digestive juices, than the coarser 
ones. 

As most of the nutriment is to be in the meat we do not cut 
it as small as for soup, but into pieces convenient for serving. 
Any meat that is quite juicy and not very tough may first be 
browned on the outside to keep in the juices and improve the 
flavor. We put the bones, gristly portions and poorer parts 
of the lean meat into cold water ; this draws out enough of 
the nutriment to enrich the broth. When the water boils we 
add the tender portions, that the juices may be kept in them. 
By this slow steady simmering rather than by fierce boiling, 
the fibres are softened and the coarsest and cheapest kinds of 
meat are made tender and nutritious. A great variety of eco- 
nomical wholesome and palatable dishes may be prepared as 
stews. 

Beef Stew. 

Cat the meat into small pieces, dredge with salt and flour, and if 
not previously cooked, brown all over in drippings hot enough to 



12 FIRST GOURISE IN COOKERY. 

harden the outer surface. This improves the flavor, and in a meas- 
ure prevents the escape of the juices, which should be partially in 
the meat. When browned, put the meat in the stew-pan, cut two 
onions, one small white turnip and half a small carrot into half inch 
dice. Cook them slightly in the dripping, and add them to the stew. 
Add cold water enough to cover, and simmer two or three hours. 

When the meat is tender, pare six or eight large potatoes and par- 
boil for five minutes to extract the acrid juice, then add to the stew 
and cook until soft. Remove the bones and skim off the fat before 
serving the stew. 



Lesson Seventh. 

SUBJECT— BROILING. 

Broiling is cooking directly over hot coals. The heat is so 
intense that the food would be quickly burned if allowed to 
remain continuously over the fire. We avoid burning by turn- 
ing the meat frequently. This rapid cooking by such direct, 
intense heat, in the air, which has free access to the meat, 
gives a flavor quite unlike that obtained by cooking meat in 
water. Meat for broiling should have tender fibres, much 
juice and but little fat, bone and gristle. There is neither 
time nor moisture in this form of cooking to soften tough fi- 
bres. The fire for broiling should be bright red, but not blaz- 
ing, and should be near the top of the fire-box. There should 
be little or no flame as that will smoke the meat. But there 
is smoking and smoking : smoking that produces a detestable 
flavor, and smoking that does no mischief at all beyond ap- 
pearances. 

The flame of an ordinary coal fire is due to the distillation 
and combustion of tarry vapours ; if such a flame strikes a 
comparatively cool surface like that of the meat, it will con- 
dense and deposit thereon a film of crude coal tar and coal 
naphtha, most nauseous and rather mischievous. But if the 
flame be that which is caused by the combustion of its own 
fat, the deposit on the mutton -chop will be a little mutton 
juice, on a beefsteak a little beef juice, more or less blackened 
by mutton-carbon or beef-carbon. But these have no other 
flavour than that of the cooked mutton or beef. 

In every form of cooking meat where the meat itself is to be 
eaten, our object is to keep the juices in the meat. The ob- 



FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 13 

ject to be obtained in broiling meat is to raise the juices of 
the meat throughout to about the temperature of 180° 
F. as quickly as possible, in order that the cooking may be 
completed before the water of these juices shall have had time 
to evaporate excessively ; therefore the meat should be placed 
as near the surface of the glowing carbon as possible. 
To Broil Steaks or Chops. 

There is nothing better for broiling than a double wire broiler. 
Grease it well with a bit of fat from the meat. Place the thickest 
part of whatever is to be broiled next to the middle of the broiler. 
Do not salt the meat as salt draws out the juices. Place the meat 
as close to the fire as possible. The intense heat instantly sears the 
albuminoids and fibrin on that side and starts the flow of the juices; 
as they become hot they rise, and if the meat be cooked long on one 
side, they will force their way through the fibres and form little 
pools on the surface of the meat, which run off and drip into the 
fire. But if we turn the meat before the juices ooze out, this sur- 
face is brought next the fire and seared and the juices cannot escape 
and remain inside the meat. As the water of the juices is converted 
into steam by the heat, it expands and gives the meat a puffy ap- 
pearance. If the meat be not turned often, or the broiling carried 
on too long, these watery juices will gradually ooze between the 
fibres to the surface and be evaporated, leaving the meat dry, 
leathery and indigestible. Meat should be broiled only long enough 
to loosen all the fibres and start the flow of the juices. When 
cooked the meat should be pink and juicy, not raw and purple nor 
brown and dry. 

Turn the broiler every ten seconds. Cook a steak one inch 
thick for five minutes, and one an inch and a half thick from eight 
to ten minutes. The burning fat will not smoke the meat if the 
broiler be held close to the coals, but if held on the top of the flame 
it will soon be smoked. 

After the first thorough searing hold the broiler farther from the 
fire. 

Lesson Eighth. 

SUBJECT— PAN BROILING. 

It is sometimes inconvenient to broil over the coals and 
nearly the same effect may be obtained by cooking in a dry 
hissing hot frying pan. The principle is precisely the same 
in both methods, the degree of heat, whether from hot coals 
or hot iron, being sufficient to harden the outside of the meat 
and prevent the escape of the juices. 

Sear the meat quickly on one side and then turn it and 
brown the other side before any juice escapes into the 



14 FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 

pan. If the pan be hot enough and no fat used, this is not 
frying ; it is broihng on hot iron. If there be much fat on 
the meat, it should be drained off as it melts. Cook the meat 
from four to eight minutes, turning twice, and add a sprink- 
ling of salt just before the last turning. 

To Pan-Broil a Chop. 

Heat the pan to a blue heat. Rub it with a bit of the fat of the 
meat, just enough to keep it from sticking, but do not leave any fat 
in the pan. Wipe and trim the meat into good shape. Sear the 
meat quickly on one side, then turn without cutting into the meat 
and sear on the other side to prevent the escape of the juices. 

Cook a chop three-quarters of an inch thick about four minutes, 
turning twice, and serve very hot with salt and pepper. 



Lesson Ninth. 

SUBJECT—BOASTING. 

The word roasting means " to heat violently" and the pro- 
cess should if possible be carried on by means of an open 
fire. The temperature of an open fire is about 1,000° F. 
Ovens in stoves and ranges are now well ventilated, and meat 
when properly cooked in a very hot oven and basted often is 
nearly equal in flavor to that roasted before an open fire. A.s 
the juices of meat are composed largely of water, the water 
will be evaporated as soon as it reaches the boiling point, or 
212° F. When meat is placed in a moderate oven, the heat 
is not sufficient toharden the albuminoids on the outer sur- 
face; the watery juices evaporate, the steam escapes, and 
the meat becomes dry and tasteless. But when meat is ex- 
posed to the violent heat of an open fire, or a very hot oven, 
the albuminoids harden ; and if basted frequently with hot fat, 
the meat is completely enveloped in a varnish of hot melted 
fat, which assists in communicating the heat to the inside, and 
checks the evaporation of the juices ; this prevents the escape 
of the steam, so that the inside of properly roasted meat is 
really cooked in the steam of its own juices. 

The smaller the joint to be roasted, the higher the tempera- 
ture to which its surface should be exposed. The roasting of 
a small joint, should, in fact, be conducted in nearly the same 



FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY. 15 

manner as the broiling of a chop or steak. The surface should 
be browned as speedily as possible to keep the juices within 
the meat. 

Roast Beef. 

Take six or eight pounds from the tip of the sirloin. Wipe, trim 
and tie or skewer the meat into shape. Lay the meat on a rack in 
the paa, and dredge all over with flour and salt. Put the skin side 
down at first, so that the heat may harden the cut surface of the 
meat. 

Put in a very hot oven and allow the beef to roast ten minutes to 
every pound. Baste every fifteen minutes, turning several times. 



Lesson Tenth. 

S UBJECT—FR YING. 

Frying is cooking in hot fat ; not boiling fat, however, as 
many suppose. The temperature at which we fry our food is 
about 385° F. Frying is immersion in smoking hot fat, 
and the fat should be deep enough to entirely cover the ar- 
ticle to be fried. This is not extravagant, as the same fat 
may be used many times if it is properly strained and clarified 
after each using. The prime secret of nice frying is to have 
the fat hot enough to harden instantly the albuminoids on the 
outer surface and thus prevent the fat from soaking into the 
inside of whatever is to be fried. All articles to be fried 
should be thoroughly dried and shghtly warmed. If very 
moist or cold, or too many articles be fried at a time, the fat 
becomes chilled and the grease soaks into them. 

In the process of frying, the heat is not communicated to 
the food by radiation from a heated sui'face at some distance, 
but by direct contact with the heating medium, which is th^ 
hot fat, commonly but erroneously described as "boiling fat.'' 
Generally speaking, ordinary animal fats are not boilable 
under the pressure of oui' atmosphere, (one of the constitu- 
ent fatty acids of butter, butyric acid, is an exception ; it 
boils at 314° F). 

Before reaching their boiling point, i.e. the temperature at 
which they pass completely into the state of vapour, their 
constituents are more or less dissociated or separated by the 
repulsive agency of the heat, new compounds being in many 



16 FIRST COURSE IN COOKERY . 

cases formed by recombinations of their elements. But the 
practical cook may say, " This is wrong, for the fat in my frying- 
pan does boil ; I hear it boil, and see it boil." The reply to 
this is, that the lard, or drippings, or butter that you put into 
your frying-pan is mixed with water, and that it is not the oil 
but the water that you see and hear boiling. 

Saratoga Potatoes. 

Pare, wash and shave in thin slices. Soak in cold salted water, 
drain and dry between towels. Fry in clear fat, hot enough to brown 
while you count sixty seconds. 

Thorough draining is another secret of nice frying, and you can- 
not find a much hotter place than right over the hot fat. After 
draining, place the articles on unglazed paper to absorb the fat, and 
keep them hot until ready to serve. Never pile fried articles one on 
another. Sprinkle ground coffee on the stove while frying to dis- 
guise the odor of the smoking lard. 



Industrial Education Association 

No. 9 University Place, N. Y. 



SECOND COURSE IJSF COOKERY. 



Lesson First. 

Oat flour stands before all other grains in point of nutritive 
or flesh-producing power, being first in its proportion of the 
nitrogenous element. It is also distinguished by its large 
quantity of fat or oil, ranging in this particular next to Indian 
Corn. 

Oat Meal Porridge. 

J^ cup of coarse Oatmeal. ^ teaspoon of Bait. 

2 cups of boiling water. 

Put the oatmeal and salt into the top part of the double boiler ; 
add boiliDg water. Boil ten minutes, stirring all the time, then set 
it over boiling water, and cook forty minutes or one hour. Serve 
with baked apples. 

The apple is one of the most widely known and cultivated 
fruits belonging to the temperate climates. In its wild state, 
it is known as the crab-apple, and is generally found in Europe 
Western Asia and America, growing in as high a latitude as 
Norway. Apples have been cultivated in Great Britain prob- 
ably since the period of the Roman occupation, but the names 
of the different varieties indicate a French or Dutch origin of 
a much later date. It is calculated that there are over 2000 
kinds of apples. In their uncooked state they are not very 
digestible, but when cooked they form a very safe and useful 
food, exercising a gentle laxative influence. Apples are chiefly 
composed of water, but are rich in phosphoric and sulphuric 
acids and "potash and soda. 

Baked Apples. 

Core and pare sour or sweet apples. Place on an earthen or 
granite dish; fill the cavities with sugar and the grated rind of a lemon. 



18 SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 

Cover the bottom of the dish with cold water. Bake until soft, bast- 
ing the apples often with the syrup in the dish. 

The tomato is an annual which grows from 2 to 6 ft. in 
height. The flowers are numerous, followed by berries, which 
are sometimes very various in shape and color, generally red 
and yellow. The plant is a native of the tropical parts of 
America, but is now much cultivated in all parts of the world. 

Mock Bisque Soup. 

Yi can of tomatoes. 1 tablespoonful of corn-starch. 

1 qt, of milk. 1 teaspoonf ul of salt. 

}4 cup of butter. }4 saltspoonf ul of pepper. 

Stew the tomatoes until soft enough to strain easily. Boil the 
milk in a double boiler. Melt one tablespoonful of butter in a sauce- 
pan and when it bubbles add the corn-starch; add enough hot milk 
to make the mixture pour easily. Stir it carefully into the rest of 
the milk and boil ten minutes. Add the remainder of the butter in 
small pieces and stir antil well mixed. Add salt and pepper and 
the strained tomatoes. Serve with croutons. 

Croutons. 

Cut stale bread into half inch dice. Bake them until a golden 
brown. 



Lesson Second. 

The potato owes its value to its peculiar property of develop- 
ing underground slender leafless shoots or branches which differ 
in character and office from the true roots, and which gradu- 
ally swell at the free end and thus produce the tubers with 
which we are so familiar. The nature of these tubers is fur- 
ther rendered evident by the presence of " eyes" or leaf-buds, 
which in due time lengthen into shoots and form the stems 
of the plant. Such buds are not under ordinary circumstances 
formed on roots. What the determinating cause of the for- 
mation of the tubers maybe is not known ; the object evident- 
ly is to secure a method of propagation independently of the 
seed. Starch and other matters are stored up in the tubers, 
and in due season are rendered available for the nutrition of 
the young shoots when they begin to grow. The young shoots, 
in fact, derive their nourishment from the parent tuber until 
by the production of roots and leaves they are enabled to shift 



SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 19 

for themselves. The potato tuber consists mainly of a mass of 
cells filled with starch and encircled by a thin corky rind. A 
few vessels and woody fibres traverse the tubers. The chief 
value of the potato as an article of diet, consists in the starch 
it contains, and to a less extent in the potash and other salts. 
The quantity of nitrogen in its composition is small, and 
hence it should not be relied on to constitute the staple article 
of diet, unless in admixture with milk or some other substance 
containing nitrogen. 

Potato Soup. 

3 potatoes. }4 teaspoonf ul of celery salt. 

1 pt. of milk. }4 saltspoonful of white pepper. 

1 teaspoonf ul of chopped onion. }4 saltspoonful of cayenne pepper. 

1 stalk of celerj'. >^ tablespoonful of flour. 

1 teaspoonful of salt. i tablespoonful of butter. 

Wash and pare the potatoes ; put them in boiling water, and cook 
until very soft. Cook onion and celery with the milk in a double 
boiler. When the potatoes are soft, drain off the water and mash 
them. Add the boiling milk and seasoning. Rub through a strainer, 
and put it on to boil. Put the butter in a saucepan, and when it 
bubbles, add the flour, and when well mixed stir into the boiling 
soup. Let it boil five minutes and serve very hot. If the soup be 
too thick, add more hot milk. 

Mashed Potatoes. 

To one pint of hot boiled potatoes add one tablespoonful of butter, 
half a teaspoonful of salt, half a saltspoonful of pepper, and hot 
milk or cream to moisten. Mash in the kettle in which they were 
boiled, and beat with a fork until light and creamy, and turn out 
lightly on a dish. 

Milk consists of oil or butter, sugar, casein or the cheesy 
principle, and salts, with a large proportion of water. The 
sugar, casein and salts are dissolved in the water, while the 
butter is not, but exists diffused through the hquid in the 
form of numberless extremely minute globules. Viewed by a 
microscope the globules appear floating in a transparent Hquid. 
In respect of its sugar, casein, and salts milk is a solution ; 
but with reference to its oily parts it is an emulsion. 

Plain Rice Pudding. 

14 cup of well ii^ashed rice. A little salt. 

}4 cup of sugar. 1 quart of milk. 

Soak half an hour. Bake about two hours, slowly at first until the 
rice has softened and thickened the milk ; then let it brown slightly. 



20 SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY, 

Chocolate is made from the cacao beans, which are derived 
from a fruit resembling a short thick cucumber. It is a na- 
tive of the West Indies, Mexico, and South America. The 
beans are in rows, in a rose colored spongy substance, like 
that of the watermelon. They are roasted before using as 
coffee is, in order to develop the aroma. The largest constituent 
is a fatty substance, called butter of cacao, which is the con- 
sistency of tallow, while of a mild agreeable taste and not apt 
to turn rancid by keeping. 

Chocolate. 

Put two squares of Baker's chocolate, two tablespoonfuls of sugar, 
two tablespoonfuls of hot water, and a pinch of salt in a saucepan 
and boil until smooth ; stir constantly ; add gradually one pint of 
boiling water, and when ready to serve add one pint of hot milk. 



Lesson Third. 

Eggs are the most perfect type of food that we have. 
Twenty eggs contain as much nourishment as 2J^ lbs. of beef. 
They are composed of the shell, the white and the yolk. 
The shell is a compound of lime, it is porous, and conse- 
quently the water of the eggs evaporates through the pores of 
the shell, and therefore a bad egg having lost its weight of 
water, is much lighter than a good egg. The white of the egg 
consists of water and a large amount of albumen. The yolk 
contains water, albumen and a large proportion of a bright 
yellow oil, containing sulphur and phosphoric compounds. 

Common parsley, which has tripinnate shining leaves, is 
one of our best known culinary plants, and is a native of the 
south of Europe, growing chiefly on rocks and old walls, and 
naturalized in some parts of England and America. The cul- 
tivation of parsley is extremely simple, and an annual sowing 
is generally made, although when cut over and prevented from 
flowering, the plant lives for several years. The foliage of 
parsley is not merely of use for flavoring soups etc., but is 
nutritious and at the same time stimulating, a quality which it 
seems to derive from an essential oil present in every part of 



BECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 21 

the plant. Parsley contains also a peculiar gelatinous sub- 
stance called apiine. The bruised leaves of parsley are some- 
times employed as a stimulating poultice. The seeds are a 
deadly poison to some birds. 

Egg Vermicelli. 

Boil three eggs twenty minutes. Separate the yolks and chop the 
whites fine. Toast four slices of bread, cut half into small squares 
and half into points or triangles. Make one cup of thin white sauce 
with one cujd of cream or milk, one teaspoonful of butter, one heap- 
ing teaspoonful of flour, half a teaspoonful of salt, and half a salt- 
spoonful of pepper. Stir the whites into the sauce, and when hot 
pour it over the toast. Kub the yolks through a fine strainer over 
the whole, and garnish with a border of toast points, and a bit of 
parsley in the centre. 

Omelet. 

Beat the yolks of two eggs until light-colored and thick ; add two 
tablespoonfuis of milk, one saltspoonful of salt, and one-fourth of a 
saltspoonful of pepper. Beat the whites of two eggs until stifi' and 
dry. Cut and fold them lightly into the yolks until just covered. 
When the omelet pan is hot, rub it around the edge with a teaspoon- 
ful of butter; let the butter run all over the pan and when it bubbles 
turn in the omelet quickly and spread it evenly on the pan. Cook 
until slightly brown underneath ; slip a knife under to keep it from 
burning in the middle. Put it on the oven grate to dry the top. 
When the centre is dry as you cut it run your knife around the edge 
then under the half nearest the handle, and fold over to the right. 
Hold the edge of a hot platter against the lower edge of the pan, 
and invert the omelet upon the platter. 

Cream Toast. 

1 pint of cream, scalded. y^ teaspoonful of salt. 

1 tablespoonful of corn-starch. 6 slices of dry toast. 

1 scant tablespoonful of butter. 

Scald the milk ; put the butter in a saucepan ; when melted add 
the dry corn-starch ; when well mixed, add one-third of the cream. 
Let it boil, and stir constantly until it is a smooth paste ; add the 
remainder of the cream gradually, stirring well ; then add the salt. 
Put the toast in a hot deep dish ; pour the thickened cream between 
the slices and over the whole. 



Lesson Fourth. 

Celery is a native of Britain. The wild celery has a bitterish 
acrid taste and is almost poisonous in its qualities. By culti- 
vation, it is so much changed that its taste becomes agreeably 



22 SEGONt) COURSE IN GOOKEEt. 

sweetish and aromatic. The root of the celery contains sugar, 
mucilage, starch, and a substance resembling manna sugar, 
which acts as a stimulant. 

Celery Soup. 

1 head of celery. 1 tablespoonful of butter. 

1 pt. of water. 1 tablespoonful of flour. 

1 pt. of milk. Yi teaspoonful of salt. 

1 tablespoonful of onion. }^ saltspoonful of pepper. 

Wash and scrape the celery ; cut in half inch pieces ; put it into one 
pint of boiling salted water, and cook until very soft. Mash in the 
water in which it was boiled. Cook the onion with the milk, in a 
double boiler, ten minutes, and add it to the celery. Rub all 
through a strainer, and put it on to boil again. Cook the butter 
and flour together in a saucepan, until smooth, but not brown, and 
stir it into the boiling soup. Add the salt and pepper ; boil five 
minutes and strain into the tureen. Serve very hot. 

Indian Corn is distinguished by containing a larger propor- 
tion of oily or fatty matter than any other grain. It is quite 
rich in nitrogenous properties, though less so than wheat. The 
meal of Indian corn, in consequence of its excess of oily matter? 
attracts much oxygen from the air, and is very apt to change, 
and does not keep for any length of time. 

Sponge Corn Cake. 

1 cup of meal. 1 tablespoonful of melted butter. 

}4 cup of flour. 1 tablespoonful of sugar. 

% teaspoonful of salt. Yolks of 2 eggs. 

J^ teaspoonful of soda. White of 1 egg. 

1 teaspoonful of cream of tartar. IX cups of milk. 

Bake in a brick loaf bread pan about half an hour. 

Irish moss or carrageen, is a sea-weed found on the rocky 
sea-shore of most parts of Europe and the eastern shores of 
North America. After being collected and washed, it is bleached 
by exposure to the sun. It is then dried and packed for mar- 
ket. It contains vegetable jelly, mucus, two kinds of resin, 
ash, fiber and water. Its value seems to depend not a little 
on its being at once, nutritious, a pleasant article of food, and 
easy of digestion. 

Vanilla is a native of South America. The pod or fruit of 
this plant produces one of the most delightful aromatics known, 
and is used chiefly for flavoring purposes. It also possesses 
medicinal properties. 



SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 23 

Breakfast Cocoa. 

Into a breakfast cup put a teaspoonful of the powder, add a table- 
spoonful of boiling water, and mix thoroughly. Then add equal 
parts of boiling water and boiled milk. Boil from five to twenty- 
minutes as you have time. Sweeten to taste and serve hot. 



Lesson Fifth. 

Cloves are natives of a group of islands, called the Molucca 
islands, lying north of Australia. The clove tree somewhat re- 
sembles the cherry tree. It often lives to be seventy-five or 
one hundred j'-ears old. The blossoms grow in clusters, from 
9 to 18 in a bunch, and look very like the buds of the honey- 
suckle. They change in color from yellow to red. A single 
tree produces several hundred thousand flowers a year and 
yields from five to ten pounds of cloves. Cloves as we see 
them, are the unexpanded flower-buds, gathered before the 
flower opens, and then dried. 

Pepper is chiefly raised in the East Indies. It is a climbing 
vine with leaves that resemble the ivy. The parts we use are 
the berries which are at first green and then change to a bright 
red. The vines bear for twenty years and the berries are 
gathered twice a year and dried in the sun. 

Tomato Soup. 

1 can of tomatoes. 1 saltspoonful of white pepper. 

1 pt. of hot water. 1 tablespoonf ul of butter. 

1 tablespoonfiil of sugar. 1 tablespoonful of chopped onion. 

1 saltspoonful of salt. 1 tablespoonful chopped parsley. 

4 cloves. 1 tablespoonful of corn-starch. 

Put the tomatoes, water, sugar, salt and cloves on to boil in a 
porcelain stew pan. Put the butter in a small saucepan, and when 
it bubbles put in the onion and parsley. Fry five minutes, being 
careful not to burn it. Add the corn-starch, and when well mixed 
stir it into the tomato. Let it simmer ten minutes. Add more salt 
and pepper if needed. Strain and serve with boiled rice or croutons. 

Fish on account of its abundance and wholesomeness, is valu- 
able as food. It is less nutritious and stimulating than meat, 
as it contains less solid matter and more water. There is no 
evidence to prove that fish is any richer than meat in phos- 
phorus, but as it is easily digested and contains a large pro- 
portion of nitrogenous material, it is especially valuable to 
those upon whom there are great demands for nervous energy. 



24 SECOND OOtJBSE IN C00KER7. 

Halibut contains more fat than any other fish except salmon. 
Bed blooded fish, like salmon, blue fish, mackerel, etc., have 
the fat distributed through the body, but white fleshed fish 
have the oil in the liver, and are more easily digested, although 
less nutritious. i 

Baked Halibut. 

Three or four pounds of halibut. Dip the dark skin in boiling 
water, and scrape clean, Eub well with salt and pepper. Put it 
into a pan, and pour milk over it to the depth of half an inch. Bake 
about an hour, basting with the milk. Remove the bones and skin, 
and arrange on the platter in the original form. Serve with plain 
drawn butter, Q^g sauce, or cream sauce, and garnish with slices of 
hard boiled Qgg. 

Egg Sauce. 

1 pt. of hot water. 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. 

14 cup of butter. }^ teaspoonful of salt. 

}^ saltspoonful of pepper. 

Put half the butter in the saucepan ; be careful not to let it be- 
come brown ; when melted, add the dry flour, and mix well. Add 
the hot water, a little at a time, and stir rapidly as it thickens. When 
perfectly smooth, add the remainder of the butter in small pieces, 
and stir until it is absorbed. Add the salt and pepper. When care- 
fully made, this sauce should be free from lumps ; but if not smooth, 
strain it before serving. Add two or three hard boiled eggs, chopped. 

Potatoes in White Sauce. 

Out in small balls with a French vegetable butter ; boil, and serve 
with white sauce, flavored with parsley. 



Lesson Sixth. 
Indian Meal Mush. 

1 cup of corn meal. 1 cup of cold milk. 

J<^ teaspoonful of salt. 1 pt. of boiling water. 

Mix the meal and salt with the cold milk. Stir this gradually 
into the boiling water. Cook half an hour in a double boiler, 
stirring often. 

Salt Fish Balls. 

1 cup of raw salt fish. 1 egg well beaten. 

1 pt. of potatoes. 3^ saltspoonful of pepper. 

1 teaspoonful of butter. More salt if needed. 

Wash the fish, pick in half inch pieces, and free from the bones. 
Pare the potatoes, and cut in quarters. Put the potatoes and fish 
in a stew pan, and cover with boiling water. Boil twenty minutes, 
or until the potatoes are soft. Be careful not to let them boil long 
enough to become soggy, drain off all the water, mash and beat the 



SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 25 

fish and potatoes until very light. Add the butter and pepper, and 
when slightly cooled, add the e^^ and more salt if needed ; shape 
in a tablespoon without smoothing much. Slip them off into a bas- 
ket, and fry in smoking hot lard one minute. Fry only five at a 
time, as more will cool the fat. Drain on soft paper. 

Baking powder is a mixture of an acid salt (cream of tartar), 
and a carbonate of an alkali (soda), substances which do not 
act upon each other when dry. Put a teaspoonful of baking* 
powder into two tablespoonfuls of water and watch what hap- 
pens. A chemical action takes place, by which the carbonic 
acid gas is liberated. This gas as it tries to escape fills the 
liquid and causes effervescence. Soon the gas disappears and 
the liquid is still, and is neither acid nor alkaline, because the 
soda and cream of tartar have neutralized each other. On ac- 
count of the difficulty of measuring these two substances in 
the kitchen, in correct proportions, some manufacturers have 
mixed them by weight and called them baking powder. When 
soda and cream of tartar are used with flour mixtures that are 
moist, this sets free the carbonic acid gas which tries to escape 
and being caught in the glutinous mass is held there and we 
fix it by the application of heat and we say our biscuits are 
made light by the use of baking powder. Cream of tartar is 
taken from the lees of wine casks and soda is now almost 
wholly made from common salt. It was formerly obtained by 
burning certain sea plants. Show the class the action of 
cream of tartar and soda when wet with water. 

Muffins. 

1 pt. of flour. 2 eggs. 

2 teaspoonfulfi of baking powder. J<f cup of milk. 

Scant y^ teaspoonful of salt. y cup of melted butter. 

Mix flour, baking powder, and salt. Beat the yolks, and add the 
milk and melted butter. Fill muffin pans two-thirds full, and bake 
fifteen minutes in a very hot oven. If for tea, add two tablespoonfuls 
of sugar to the flour. 

The coffee tree is a native of West Africa and Arabia and the 
use of its berries, it is supposed, was discovered by the Arabs. 
The tree is now cultivated in the East and West Indies and in 
South America. The tree bears fruit for twenty or thirty years. 
The leaves are evergreen and are somewhat like those of the 
laurel. The blossoms are white like the flowers of the jas- 
mine. The fruit of the coffee tree is a red berry which looks 



26 SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 

like the cherry. The pulp encloses two oval seeds which grow 
with the two flat sides together. The berries are dried and 
then the pulp is removed before the beans are packed for 
market. 

Boiled Coffee. 

1 egg. 1 qt. of boiling water. 1 cup of ground coffee. 

Put the coffee iuto a quart bowl, add J cup of cold water. Then the 
egg, shell and all. Stir until there are no dry grains of coffee vis- 
ible; put all into the coffee pot, which must be very clean. Then 
add one quart of boiling water. Boil five minutes. Dash in ^ a cup 
of cold water and let the coffee stand ten minutes where it will 
keep hot but not boil. Strain and serve. 



Lesson Seventh. 

S UBJECT— YEAST. 

In the process of fermentation of saccharine fluids contain- 
ing albuminous matter, as in brewing or wine-making, the 
originally clear fluid becomes turbid, carbonic acid is evolved, 
and the substance causing the turbidity gradually separates in 
a grayish foaming mass of a bitter taste and an acid reaction. 
This is yeast. The nature of yeast was for a long time a mat- 
ter of doubt, but the microscope has at length cleared up the 
question, and showed that it is a true plant belonging to the 
fungus tribe. Under a magnifier it is seen to consist of 
numberless minute rounded or oval bodies, which are vegetable 
cells. Each little globule consists of an enveloping skin or 
membrane, containing a liquid. Such cells are the minute 
agencies by which all vegetable growth is effected. All the 
numberless substances produced by plants, are generated with- 
in these little bodies. They grow and expand from the tiniest 
points and seem to bud off from each other. In yeast these 
little grains from which they spring are so tiny that one cubic 
inch contains as many as eleven hundred and fifty-two millions 
of them, each one of them being a separate yeast plant. Yeast 
like other plants needs air, heat and food in order that it may 
live and grow. The temperature at which yeast grows best is 
that of a greenhouse, or from 75° to 80° F. If we give yeast 
a higher temperature than this we scald it, which takes away 
much of its life, but if we give it a lower temperature we sim- 



SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 27 

ply arrest its growth, which does no harm, for when we raise 
the temperature the yeast goes on growing again. For food 
yeast hkes sweets best. This httle plant is supposed to be a 
germ floating in the air which is attracted to certain albuminous 
matters in process of decay, which furnish favorable condi- 
tions for the reception and growth of the fungus. Yeast has 
the power of turning starch into sugar and also of forming 
carbonic acid gas. When yeast is mixed with flour etc., to 
form dough, this carbonic acid gas being lighter than the dough, 
expands the mass in its efforts to escape, and we then expose 
the bread to heat sufficient to fix the bubbles of gas in the 
dough, which cause our bread to be porous, light, and spongy. 

Making Yeast. 

1 tablespoonful of hops. 3 raw potatoes. 

1 qt. of water. J^ cup of sugar. 
y, cup of yeast. 3^ cup of salt. 

Grate the potatoes. When nearly all are grated, bring the water 
and hops to a boil, and strain over the potatoes. Briny the whole 
mixture to a boil, add sugar and salt. Set away to cool ; when at 
70° F. add the yeast and put in a warm place to rise five or six 
hours. Bottle and keep in a cool place. 

Water Bread. 

2 qts. of sifted flour. 1 tablespoonful of lard or butter. 
1 tablespoonful of salt. }4 cup of yeast. 

1 tablespoonful of sugar. 1 pt. of lukewarm water. 

Sift the flour, and fill the measure lightly, not heaping, nor shak- 
ing down. Turn it into a large bowl holding about four quarts. 
Reserve one cup of flour to add at the last if needed. Mix salt and 
sugar with the flour ; rub in the shortening until fine like meal. 
Mix the yeast with the water. If compressed yeast be nsed, dissolve 
one fourth of a cake in half a cup of water. Pour the liquid into 
the center of the flour and mix well . Turn the mass over and over, 
until no dry flour is left. Knead for half an hour, or until smooth 
and fine grained. Cover, and let it rise until it doubles its bulk. 
Cut it down ; let it rise again ; divide into four parts, then shape 
into loaves, putting two into each pan. Cover, and let it rise again 
to the top of the pan. Bake in a hot oven nearly one hour. 



Lesson Eighth. 

Salt is necessary to both animals and vegetables. Our food 
would not digest without salt, and it is always present in the 
blood. Salt is obtained from mines and also by evaporating sea 
water. Most of the salt used in this country is obtained in 
the latter way. Each gallon of salt water contains about four 



28 SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 

ounces of salt. The most extensive salt-springs from which 
salt is manufactured are those at Salina and Syracuse, in the 
State of New York. These springs furnish from 5,000,000 to 
6,000,000 bushels of salt each year. The most extensive salt- 
mines are those of Poland, Europe, which are supposed to em- 
brace a bed of solid salt 500 miles long, 20 miles wide, and 
1200 feet thick. The excavations are so long and wide that 
houses, stables, storehouses, churches, and streets are cut out 
of solid salt. These mines have been worked many hundreds 
of years. 

In the interior of Africa salt is not commonly found by the 
natives, and they will sell a slave for a handful of salt. The 
children there suck pieces of salt with as much delight as boys 
and girls do their sticks of candy in this country. 

Let the class see that salt is soluble in cold water as readily 
as in hot water ; that it is not soluble in alcohol ; that it will 
crystallize by evaporation. 

Broiled Fish. 

Wash the fish with a cloth wet in salted water and dry on a towel. 
Oily fish need only salt and pepper but dry fish should be rubbed 
with soft butter or olive oil before broihng. Use a double wire broiler 
and grease it well with salt pork. Small fish require from five to six 
minutes, thick fish from fifteen to twenty minutes. 

Butter is the oily part of cream. It is made by agitating 
the cream, so as to break up the little globules of oily matter, 
and allow it to collect together in one mass. The mass of but- 
ter is a tasteless and inodorous fat, its pleasant aromatic flavor 
being due to the compound existing in it in very small quanti- 
ty, namely, butyric acid, combined with the oxide of lipyle. 

Maitre d'Hotel Butter. 

^ cup of butter. 1 tablespoonf ul of chopped parsley. 

1^ teaspoonful of salt. 1 tablespoonful lemon juice. 

% saltspoonful of pepper. 

Eub the butter to a cream ; add salt, pepper, parsley and lemon 
juice. Spread on hot broiled fish or beefsteak. 

Baked Potatoes. 

Select smooth potatoes of uniform size. Wash and scrape well. 
Bake in a very hot oven about forty-five minutes, or until soft. 
Pinch them to break the skins, and let the steam escape. Serve at 
once, and never cover, as the steam causes them to become soggy. 



SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 29 

The cinnamon tree is a native of the island of Ceylon, but 
it grows in other parts of the East Indies. It will grow, when 
left to itself, to a height of twenty or thirty feet, but it is not 
allowed to grow higher than ten feet. The sticks, as we see 
them, are the shoots which have had the bark removed and 
have then been dried in the sun. The best cinnamon is that 
which is quite thin. It is taken from the best parts of the tree. 
The tree blossoms in January. The flowers grow in clusters 
like the lilac. The berries are about the size of small peas, and 
when boiled they yield an oil which becomes hard like wax 
when cold. This wax is often made into candles and used at 
court festivities. From the roots of the tree a species of cam- 
phor may be obtained by distillation. 

Compote of Apples and Whipped Cream. 

Make a syrup with one cup of sugar, one cup of water, and a 
square inch of stick cinnamon. Boil slowly for ten minutes, skim- 
ming well. Core and pare eight or ten tart apples ; cook until soft 
in the syrup. Boil the syrup until it ropes. Arrange the apples in 
a glass dish and pour over them the syrup. Place on each apple a 
teaspoonful of currant jelly. Pour whipped cream lightly over the 
whole. 



Lesson Ninth. 

Peas are the seeds of pod-bearing vines and are very nutri- 
tious and wholesome as food. Indeed, they afford the most 
concentrated form of vegetable nourishment. They contain a 
large proportion of vegetable caseine and some oil, much 
starch and a little mineral matter. As an article of food, if 
not taken too often or without other food, peas are very valu- 
able, as they contain a large per centage of legumin. 

Green Pea Soup. 

1 qt. of Green PeaB. % ealtspoonful of pepper. 

1 qt. of water. i^ teaspoonful of sugar. 

1 pint of milk. 1 tablespoonf ul of butter, 

Yi, teaspoonful of salt. 1 tablespoonful of flour. 

Put the peas into one pint of boiling water, and cook until soft. 
Mash them in the water in which they were boiled, and rub through 
a strainer, gradually adding a pint of hot water, which will help to 
separate the pulp from the skins. Put on to boil again. Cook the 
butter and flour in a small pan, being careful not to brown it. Stir 
it into the soup. Add salt, sugar, pepper and the hot milk, using 
milk enough to make it the consistency you prefer. 



30 SECOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 

Squash is the fruit of a plant belonging to the gourd family. 
It contains a large amount of water and a little valuable 
mineral matter. The squash is nearly allied to the cucumber. 

Steamed Squash. 

If the shell be soft, peel, remove the seeds and steam until soft. 
If the shell be hard, split the squash, remove the seeds, and steam 
until soft. Scrape out the soft part from the shell, mash and sea- 
son to taste. A pint of squash requires one tablespoonful of butter, 
a few grains of pepper, half a teaspoonful of sugar and salt to 
taste. 

Dutch Apple Cake. 

1 pt. of flour. }i cup of butter. 

y^ teaspoonful of salt. 1 egg. 

V^ teaspoonful of soda sifted 1 scant cup of milk, 

into the flour. 4 sour apples. 

1 teaspoonful of cream of tartar. 2 tablespoonfuls of sugar. 

Mix the dry ingredients in the order given ; rub in the butter ; beat 
the egg and mix it with the milk ; then stir this into the dry mix- 
ture. The dough should be soft enough to spread half an inch on a 
shallow baking pan. Core, pare and cut four or five apples into 
eighths ; lay them in parallel rows on the top of the dough, the 
sharp edge down, and press enough to make them penetrate the 
dough slightly. Sprinkle the sugar on the apple. Bake twenty or 
thirty minutes in a hot oveo. To be eaten hot with butter as a 
tea cake, or with lemon sauce as a pudding. 

The lemon tree is regarded as a variety of the citron, and 
like the citron, is a native of India. The pulp of the common 
lemon is very acid, containing much citric acid. There is, 
however, a variety of lemon which is quite sweet. The juice 
of the acid lemon is used extensively by calico printers in con- 
nection with their dyeing. 

Lemon Sauce. 

2 cups liot water. 3 heaping teaspoonfuls of 
1 cup of sugar. corn-starch. 

1 tablespoonful of butter. Grated rind and juice of 1 lemon. 

Boil the water and sugar five minutes, and add the corn-starch, 
wet in a little cold water. Cook eight or ten minutes, and add the 
lemon rind and juice and the butter. Stir until the butter is melt- 
ed, and serve at once. 

Macaroni is made of fine wheat flour formed into a paste 
and shaped into long hollow tubes of the thickness of a goose 
quill. It was first made in Italy. Being marie of wheat it of 
course contains a certain amount of nutriment. An excellent 
quality of macaroni is now made in Philadelphia, but the im- 
ported is considered the best. It should be of a yellowish 



8BJC0ND COURSE IN (JOOKERT. 31 

color and should retain its shape when boiled. Macaroni 
should be quite fresh, as it grows musty by keeping. 

Baked Macaroni. 

Boil i of a pound of macaroni for twenty minutes, or until soft. 
Drain in a colander, and pour cold water through it to cleanse and 
keep it from sticking. Cut into inch pieces and put it in a shallow 
baking dish and cover with a white sauce. Mix f of a cup of 
fine cracker crumbs with i of a cup of melted butter, and sprin- 
kle over the top. Bake until the crumbs are brown. 

White Sauce. 

1 pt. milk. 2 heaping tablespoonf uls of flour. 

2 tablespoonf uls of butter. y^ teaspoonful of salt. 

}^ Saltspoonf ul of pepper. 

Heat the milk. Put the butter in a saucepan and stir until it 
melts and bubbles. Be careful not to brown it. Add the dry flour, 
and stir quickly until well mixed. Pour on the milk gradually and 
stir until it is perfectly smooth. Let it boil and add the seasoning. 



Lesson Tenth. 

Oysters are one of our commonest shell-fish. They contain 
more than 80 per cent, of water, and are, weight for weight, far 
less nutritious than beef or mutton. Fresh raw oysters re- 
quire two hours and fifty-five minutes to digest, and stewed 
they require three and one half hours, against three hours for 
roast beef or mutton. 

Oyster Soup. 

1 qt. of oysters. 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. 

1 pt. of milk. Salt to taste. 

1 tablespoonful of butter. >^ saltspoonful of pepper. 

Put the milk on to boil in the double boiler, while you prepare 
the oysters. Place a colander over a pan. Put the oysters in a 
large bowl, and pour over them one cup of water. Take up each 
oyster and make sure no pieces of shell adhere to it, and drain in 
the colander. Strain the oyster liquor through the finest strainer. 
Put it on to boil. Remove the scum, and when clear put in the 
oysters. Let them simmer but not boil, until they begin to grow 
plump, and the edges to curl or separate. Strain the liquor into 
the milk, and put the oysters where they will keep hot but not cook. 
Thicken the milk with the butter and flour, which have cooked to- 
gether ; add salt and pepper to taste. Boil five minutes ; add the 
oysters and serve at once. 

Rice Croquettes. 

One pint of cold boiled rice warmed in the double boiler with two 
or three tablespoonfuls of milk. When cold add one egg well beaten, 
one tablespoonful of butter, half a teaspoonful of salt, one-fourth of 



•l 



32 SlElCOND COURSE IN COOKERY. 



a saltspoonful of white pepper, a few grains of cayenne, and one 
heaping tablespoonful of fine chopped parsley. Shape, roll, and 
fry in deep hot fat. Drain on soft paper. 

We dip food to be fried into beaten egg in order that the 
heat of the fat may instantly harden the albumen of the Qgg 
and thus keep the fat from being absorbed into the food. 

Tea is the prepared leaves of the tea plant, a shrub which 
grows from three to six feet high, chiefly in China. The tea 
plant yields about three crops every season. The bushes are 
kept cut low so that a tea field resembles a garden of goose- 
berry bushes. There are only two kinds of tea, green and 
black. Tea contains a peculiar principle called thein, a sub- 
stance rich in nitrogen and classed amoDg vegetable alkalies. 
Tea also contains tannic acid or tannin, a substance so named 
because it is the ingredient in oak and hemlock bark, which 
combines with leather in the operation of tanning. This sub- 
stance is a powerful astringent and gives to tea its astringent 
taste and properties ; Tea leaves also contain gluten, which not 
being dissolved by hot water is usually lost with the dregs. 
The proportion of this substance is stated to be as high as 
twenty-five per cent., so that the leaves after exhausting by 
steeping are still highly nutritive. 

Ordinary gelatins are made from those 'pieces of skins 
which are cut off by the tanner as unfit for making leather, in 
consequence of thickness. The best description is prepared 
from the skins of calves' heads. 

Lemon Jelly. 

14 box of gelatin. 1 cup of sugar. 

1 scant cup of cold water. X ^^P ^f lemon juice. 

1 pt. of boiling water. 1 square inch of cinnamon. 

Soak the gelatin in the cold water until soft. Shave the lemon rind 
thin, using none of the white. Steep it with the cinnamon in the 
hot water ten minutes, then add the gelatin, sugar and lemon juice, 
and when dissolved strain, and cool in molds. 

Tea. 

Scald the tea pot, which should be of earthenware or china, never 
of tin. Allow one teaspoonful of tea for one cup of boiling water. 
Reduce the quantity of tea when several cups are needed. Put the 
tea in a strainer and pour ^ cup of hot water over it to cleanse the 
grounds. Then put the tea in the tea pot ; pour on the freshly 
boiled water ; cover closely and place where it will keep hot, but not 
boil, and let it stand five minutes. 



COLLEGE FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
Two Years' Course, - Annual Tuition Fee, $60.00. 

Special courses in Sewing and Cooking for teachers 
already engaged in their profession, or who cannot at- 
tend the regular courses. Tuition very moderate. 



EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS. 
Issued Bi-Monthly. - Subscription, $1.00 per year. 

Among the early issues will be two of special interest 
to teachers and students of Domestic Science. Mrs. 
Ellen H. Richards of Boston, has prepared a mono- 
graph on "The Science of Cooking as a Factor in 
Public Education," and Mrs. Emma P. Ewing, of 
Purdue University, will write on "DOMESTIC SCIENCE 
in the Schools." 



EDUCATIONAL LEAFLETS. 
Issued every two weeks. - - Price i cent each. 

Sent by mail, post-paid, to any address for 50 cents 
per year. 



For all information, circulars, publications, etc, 
address, 

A. W. Tyler. A.M., Deaii, 

9 University Place, 

New York City. 



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iiH 

^14 485 816 5 ^ 



